Acquisition: picking up a lanaguage through meaningful conversation the way children pick up languages. There is no study of forms and grammar. Acquisition is contrasted to learning a language through conscious study of forms. In Krashen's acquisition-learning hypothesis, acquisition is far superior to learning because it is language that is acquired that is available for fluent, rapid, and natural speech. Acquisitiion will occur when a learner is exposed to meaningful, comprehensible input.
Acquisition-learning hypothesis: According to Stephen Krashen, adult second language learners can develop second language learning. One method is learning, a conscious study of the forms of language. The other method is acquistion, or just picking up a language the way children do without conscious attention to forms. Krashen further argues that acquisiton is far more beneficial in terms of producing fluent, natural communication in another language. Krashen also asserts that learning cannot change into acquistion.
Note: Learning can be a confusing word because in the acquisition-learning hypothesis it has a very precise meaning: a conscious study of rules and forms. However, learning is also used in a more general sense of becoming more proficient or knowledgable in something. So for example, in the sentence:
Second language learners can acquire or learn a language,
The meaning of learn is different in the two instances where it is used. Perhaps, this confusion wouldn't have resulted if Krashen had choosen study in place of learn.
Affective feedback: Affective feedback is when teachers (or anybody) display signs about how interested they are in trying to understand the student. These signs come in the form of gestures, facial expressions, and intonations. Positive affective feedback will encourage the learner to continue even if it is clear that the listener cannot fully understand. Negative affective feedback will stop a learner from speaking entirely and raise their affective filter.
Affective feedback can be contrasted with cognitive feedback, where a listener signals whether he or she understands what is being said.
Affective-filter hypothesis: Krashen argues that comprehensible input is not enough to ensure language acquisition. Language learners also have to be receptive to that input. When learners are bored, angry, frustrated, nervous, unmotivated or stressed, they may not be receptive to language input and so they 'screen' the input. This screen is referred to as the affective filter. This suggests that when learners are bored, angry, frustrated, nervous, unmotivated or stressed, they may be unsuccessful at learning a second language. This has very practical implications for language teachers: lower their affective filters. One problem with this hypothesis is the difficulty in determining cause and effect: Are language learners unsuccessful because they are bored, angry, and stressed? Or are language learners bored, angry, and stressed because they are unsuccessful?Approach: A set of principles about teaching including views on method, syllabus, and a philosophy of language and learning. Approaches have theoretical backing with practical applications.
The communicative approach has affected language teaching greatly, changing the focus away from structure to meaning and accuracy to fluency. In this approach, a functional syllabus replaces a structural syllabus.
In recent years, some authors have combined an emphasis on lexis with the communicative approach to suggest a lexical approach to language learning and teaching.
Method: How a language is taught, as opposed to the syllabus, which is what language is taught. Method is made up of a set of techniques that usually reflect a certain view of language teaching.
The grammar-translation method involved translating from first language to second language with an emphasis on grammar usage. Explanation was given in the learners first language. Students primarily did grammar exercises and translation.
Advocates of the direct method abandonded the techniques of the grammar-translation method and replaced them with inductive grammar drills and language teaching that was conducted only in the second language.
Automatic processing: When speech is produced with only 'periphereal attention to language forms.' (Taken from H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles). Automatic processing is necessary for producing fluent speech as language rapidly becomes more complex.
Chunk: Several words that commonly occur together in fixed phrases sometimes referred to as a lexical phrase. We tend to speak in chunks which reduces the energy required for processing language.Communicative approach: A set of principles about teaching including recommendations about method and syllabus where the focus is on meaningingful communication not structure, use not usage. In this approach, students are given tasks to accomplish using language, instead of studying the language. The syllabus is based primarily on functional development (asking permission, asking directions, etc.), not structural development (past tense, conditionals, etc.). In essence, a functional syllabus replaces a structural syllabus. There is also less emphasis on error correction as fluency and communication become more important than accuracy As well, authentic and meaningful language input becomes more important. The class becomes more student-centered as students accomplish their tasks with other students, while the teacher plays more of an observer role.
In recent years, some authors have combined an emphasis on lexis with the communicative approach to suggest a lexical approach to language learning and teaching.
A word of caution: every ESL textbook claims to be based on the communicative approach. Whether they are infact or not is another question
Comprehensible input: A hypothesis that learners will acquire language best when they are given the appropriate input. The input should be easy enough that they can understand it, but just beyond their level of competence. If the learner is at level i, then input should come at level i+1. Comprehensible input is an essential component in Stephen Krashen's Input Hypothesis, where regulated input will lead to acquistion so long as the input is challenging, yet easy enough to understand without conscious effort at learning. One problem with this hypothesis is that i and i+1 are impossible to identify, though arguably teachers can develop an intuition for appropriate input. That is, teachers develop an intution of how to speak to be understood.
Critical period hypothesis: The hypothesis that if somebody does not acquire a first language before a certain time (around puberty), they will lose the ability to acquire language. There are two versions of this hypothesis: The strong version states that language acquisition will be impossible after this point has been reached. The weak version states that acquisition will be difficult after this period has been reached.
Innatism: This is the theoretical view that children have an innate knowledge of the structures of language. Children are born with a knowledge of Universal Grammar (or as called by Krashen a language acquisition device) that gives them access to the universal principles of human language. It is because of this innate knowledge that children can learn a complex language with relatively little input. Innatism can be contrasted with interactionism, a theory where meaningful interaction along with innate knowledge combine to make language acquisition possible.
Input hypothesis: According to Stephen Krashen the only way we can acquire language is by receiving comprehensible input. That is, we have to receive input that is just beyond our competence but not beyond our understanding. However, this hypothesis was later modified so that comprehensible input was a necessary but not sufficient condition for acquisition. Learners have to also have the right environment and circumstances to allow comprehensible input to work. A learner's affective filter has to be low; they have to be free of stress and motivated.
Monitor hypothesis: According to Krashen's acquisition-learning hypothesis, there are two ways to approach language learning: acquisition and learning. Acquisition helps us produce natural, rapid, and fluent speech. Learning, which is a conscious study of form, helps us edit this speech. In other words, when we learn something it won't help us produce fluent communication, but it will help us monitor our communication and correct minor errors. However, in order for a learned system to be effective as a monitor, a learner must have sufficient time, and knowledge of the rules.
monitor model: A model of second language acquisition/learning developed by Krashen and based on several hypothesis: the acquisition-learning hypothesis, monitor hypothesis, input hypothesis, natural order hypothesis, and affective filter hypothesis. Essentially, adults have two ways to internalize a language. One is through a conscious effort called learning and the other is through a subconscious effort called acquisition. Fluency is a result of language acquisition, not any conscious effort to learn. Learning is only useful to 'monitor' our output and make some corrections. But because this is a only a minor benefit, acquisition is far more important to learning. Language acquisition will occur if comprehensible input is given to a learner and their affective filter is down. One controversial assertion of this model is that learning and acquisition are mutually exclusive; learning cannot become acquisition over time.
Natural order hypothesis: This hypothesis states that there is a natural pre-determined order in which we can acquire language. Evidence for this hypothesis comes from studies of grammatical morphemes. In these studies, students tend to acquire morphemes in about the same order.
Pragmatic competence:
This is a part of communicative competence that involves being able to use language in interpersonal relationships, taking into account such complexities as social distance and indirectness.
As an example of indirectness, consider the conversation:
A: How was the movie?
B: Well, the sound track was ok.
A second language learner may take that at face value not having the essential pragmatic knowledge that B is avoiding a direct answer because the direct answer is that the movie wasn't good.
Pragmatic competence is thought to be difficult to teach and have serious real consequences for second language learners that include failing to get jobs and good grades.Task: An activity (or technique) where students are urged to accomplish something or solve some problem using their language. Preferably, this activity is open ended; there is no set way to accomplish their goal.
Task-based learning: Teaching/learning a language by using language to accomplish open-ended tasks. Learners are given a problem or objective to accomplish, but are left with some freedom in approaching this problem or objective.
TPR, total physical response: A teaching technique whereby a learner (usually young learner) responds to language input with body motions. This could be, for example, the acting out a chant. This technique was devised by James Asher who noted that children listen and respond with guestures before they speak. One benefit is that TPR allows for low anxiety learning since students don't have the stress of producing language. 'Robot' is an example of a TPR activity, where the teacher commands her robots to do some task in the classroom. Acting out stories and giving imperative commands are common TPR activities. Great for early stages but difficult to teach complex language.
Another benefit (and Asher's main justification for TPR as a technique) is that it stimulates right-brain motor skill activity.
Audio-lingual approach(method?): Language learning is a matter of habit formation. Drill! Drill! Drill! Audiolingualism is based on behaviourism. Error correction is considered important to prevent bad habits. As well, a structural syllabus is used in class. As a result grammatical structures are brought to the forefront with meaning being neglected.
Audiolingualism is largely discredited in academic circles, though in some places it is still practiced. Some authors refer to it as an approach and some refer to it as just a method since it lacks a major theoretical foundation.
Additive bilingualism: When learning a second language does not interfere with the learning of a first language. Both languages are developed. This can be contrasted to subtractive bilingualism.
Behaviouralism: This is the theoretical view that language learning is a matter of habit formation. The learner mimics the language they hear, and when they receive some positive feedback, that language becomes a habit. This view is criticised because it does not explain how a child can acquire something as complex as a language with so little input and feedback.
bottom-up: Language learning that proceeds from the most basic blocks of language, such as words, and then proceeding to more complex structures, and finally to meaning. This can be contrasted to top-down learning where students try to understand the general message without understanding all of the constituent parts. Listening for exact phrases and words would be considered a bottom-up listening activity, whereas listening for the gist would be considered a top-down activity. Also, studying individual grammatical structures or sentence structures would be bottom-up.
Top-down: Studying language as a whole. Trying to understand the meaning of a reading or listening selection without worrying about the individual components of language. Listening for the gist and reading for the gist are two types of top-down activities. The learner is trying to understand using cues such as intonation, tone of voice or body language without focusing on specific words and structures. Top-down learning is thought to be important for producing automatic processing. Top-down techniques can be contrasted with bottom-up techniques.
Content-centered education: Teaching language through content in areas such as math, science, and social studies. Language is no longer the main focus, but instead language is picked up while focusing on other regular content. This type of teaching is especially popular in ESL settings
Designer methods: One of many highly idiosyncratic methods that were developed in the 70s. for example, suggestopedia, the silent way, or TPR.
Silent Way: A designer method whereby the teacher remains mostly silent to encourage students to solve their own problems. Originated by Caleb Gattegno in the 70s, this method was meant to fascillitate learning through discovery. Students were given cuisenaire rods and used these colored rods to figure out the patterns of language based on a few examples given by the teacher. However, The language taught is structural. And hence, the main criticism is that it lacks meaningful communication. As well, it is difficult to do beyond the simplest early stages of language. But on the other hand, learning language through problem solving remained a valuable technique in later task-based language teaching.
Grammar translation method: A dull, dry, and ineffective teaching method completely devoid of theoretical justification. The method has its roots in the teaching of latin. The method focuses on translating grammatical forms, memorizing vocabulary, learning rules, and studying conjugations. Its focus is on accuracy and not fluency. Emphasis is on form and not on meaning. Paragraphs are dissected for form, while students and teacher could care less if the paragraph actually has anything worth saying. Another problem with this method is that most of the teaching is done through explanation in the learner's first language.
Much scholarship has been spent on debunking this form of teaching. Sadly, it is still in use in some parts of Asia. It has produced generations of students who could trip up native-speaking teachers on questions of grammar, yet couldn't engage in simple conversations.
However, no method should be entirely discarded. Some have claimed that aspects of this method are useful in teaching writing.
grammatical morpheme: Markers such as the past participle 'ed used in the past tense, the present participle 'ing' used in the present progressive, or third person singular 's'. Here are some example:
present progressive ing: He is playing.
plurals s: Ten pencils.
possesive 's: John's hat.
past tense ed: I cleaned the floor.
A study undertaken by Roger Brown discovered that most children acquire morphemes in approximately the same order. This study suggested that there may be a natural order, or developmental stages in which we acquire language. Other studies on second language learners suggest the second language learners also acquire grammatical morphemes in stages similar to first language learners
Instrumental motivation:
Wanting to learn a language for the purpose of obtaining some concrete goals such as a job, graduation, or the ability to read academic materials. This form of motivation is thought to be less likely to lead to success than integrative motivation
Integrative motivation:
When students want to learn a language to become part of a speech community (integrate). People who immigrate to new countries are some examples of people who may want to identify with the community around them. An important aspect of this form of language learning is using language for social interaction. This form of motivation is thought to produce success in language learners. This is often compared to instrumental motivation.
Intrinsic motivation: Motivation in learning that comes from a sense of empowerment in being able to do something. Doing something for the sake of doing it without thought of rewards such as praise, grades, candy, or money. Intrinsic motivation can be contrasted with extrinsic motivation where the learner performs a task in order to receive some kind of reward.
Intrinsic motivation is thought to have far greater benefits in the long run. This in turn suggests that ESL teachers should try to foster intrinsic motivation instead of providing rewards for doing well. However, because ESL teacher rarely have long term contact with students, they opt for the quick fix solutions to make their classes run smoothly now - something to think about next time you want to bribe a class of hyperactive grade 4s with candy and a quiz.
Interactionism: This is the theoretical view that children have some innate knowledge of the structures of language but also require meaningful interaction with others to acquire language structures. In the end, those structures which get acquired are exactly those that were able to convey meaning. This theory suggests that student-centered methods are important as they give more opportunity to interact.
Student-centered, learner-centered: Language activities, techniques, methods where the students/learners are the focus and the teacher plays only a periphereal role. Students are allowed some control over the activity or some input into the curriculum. These activities encourage student creativity. Group work is one kind of student-centered activity. Having students design their own test is another learner-centered activity. Individual styles and needs of the learners are taken into account. Learner-centered education is thought to be intrinsically motivating and thus beneficial. This can be contrasted to teacher-centered learning.
Teacher-centered: Methods, activities, and techniques where the teacher decides what is to be learned, what is to be tested, and how the class is to be run. Often the teacher is in the center of the classroom giving instruction with little input from students. The teacher decides the goals of the class based on some outside criteria.
Lexical approach: An approach to teaching languages that has a lot in common with the communicative approach, but also examines how lexical phrases, prefabricated chunks of language, play an important role in producing fluent speech. The lexical approach was first coined by Michael Lewis. The fundamental principle of the lexical approach is "language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar." What this means is that lexical phrases offer far more language generative power than grammatical structures. Accordingly, advocates of this kind of approach argue that lexis should move to the center of language syllabuses. Justification for this theory comes from statistical analysis of language which shows that we do indeed speek in chunks and collocations.
Lexical phrase: Multi-word chunks of language of varying length that run on a continuum from fixed phrases like in a nutshell to slot- and- filler frames like the _____er, the _________er. Because lexical phrases are 'pre-assembled' they are very useful for creating fluent communication. They also serve the purpose of organizing dialogue and writing. And in organizing dialogue and writing, they provide cues to the listener/reader about the flow of conversation.
Some examples of lexical phrases:
The problem with that is . . .
On the one hand . . ., one the other hand . . .
What I'm trying to say is . . .
So what you're saying is . . .
That's beside the point.
Collocates: words that tend to be associated with each other, or co-occur in sentences. Some words that collocate well with wedding are white, cake, ring, shotgun, and vows. Collocates are important in ESL because they help to explain why some learner language is grammatically correct and the meaning is apparent, yet the utterance seems strange - we don't usually say that. For example, in North America, I am going to clean my teeth is a grammatically correct and comprehensible sentence, but teeth collocates so well with brush that it seems awkward (In England, however, clean and teeth do collocate well). Collocations often interfere in native like production* as learners substitute the collocations from their own language into English grammar. Koreans, for example, will say, "I am going to go eye-shopping." in place of "window-shopping."
For a very interesting web site with a tool on how to check collocates, visit the Collins Cobuild Concordance and Collocation Sampler.
*Native like is a controversial term because native speaker is not well defined. The collocations that one set of 'native speakers' use may be different from another set of 'native speakers'. There is no standard by which all language can be compared.
Midnight run: When a teacher leaves his or her job abruptly and then hastily departs the country to avoid contract obligations or penalties.
In some cases, teachers flee because of threats made by directors, lousy conditions, or breech of contract such as late pay or no pay.
In some cases, teachers leave decent jobs with directors who abide by their terms of the contract. This can cause hardship on legitimate directors, as they scramble to find a new teacher.
Monitor hypothesis: According to Krashen's acquisition-learning hypothesis, there are two ways to approach language learning: acquisition and learning. Acquisition helps us produce natural, rapid, and fluent speech. Learning, which is a conscious study of form, helps us edit this speech. In other words, when we learn something it won't help us produce fluent communication, but it will help us monitor our communication and correct minor errors. However, in order for a learned system to be effective as a monitor, a learner must have sufficient time, and knowledge of the rules.
monitor model: A model of second language acquisition/learning developed by Krashen and based on several hypothesis: the acquisition-learning hypothesis, monitor hypothesis, input hypothesis, natural order hypothesis, and affective filter hypothesis. Essentially, adults have two ways to internalize a language. One is through a conscious effort called learning and the other is through a subconscious effort called acquisition. Fluency is a result of language acquisition, not any conscious effort to learn. Learning is only useful to 'monitor' our output and make some corrections. But because this is a only a minor benefit, acquisition is far more important to learning. Language acquisition will occur if comprehensible input is given to a learner and their affective filter is down. One controversial assertion of this model is that learning and acquisition are mutually exclusive; learning cannot become acquisition over time.
Teach what is teachable: In this view of teaching, some things can be taught, but only if the learner is ready for them. Proponents of this view argue that there are natural stages of development. Some linguistic points have to be taught in sequence and some linguistic points can be taught at any time. In this view, error correction is only useful if the student is ready for it.
Visual learners: Learners who benefit more from right-brained activities. Visual learners learn best when they see as opposed to aural learners. The implication for ESL teaching is that visual stimulation accompanying lessons may have some benefit for some students
Extrinsic motivation: Motivation through rewards such as points, candies, compliments, money, test scores, or grades. These rewards are externally administered and may inhibit learning in the long run, although seeming to be effective in the short run. One problem is that they are addictive. Researchers generally agree that intrinsic
Fossilization: When an error becomes a habit of speech in a second language learner. This happens especially when the error does not interfere with communication, and hence, the speaker does not get corrective feedback.monitor model: A model of second language acquisition/learning developed by Krashen and based on several hypothesis: the acquisition-learning hypothesis, monitor hypothesis, input hypothesis, natural order hypothesis, and affective filter hypothesis. Essentially, adults have two ways to internalize a language. One is through a conscious effort called learning and the other is through a subconscious effort called acquisition. Fluency is a result of language acquisition, not any conscious effort to learn. Learning is only useful to 'monitor' our output and make some corrections. But because this is a only a minor benefit, acquisition is far more important to learning. Language acquisition will occur if comprehensible input is given to a learner and their affective filter is down. One controversial assertion of this model is that learning and acquisition are mutually exclusive; learning cannot become acquisition over time.
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